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\author{Robin K. S. Hankin\\Auckland University of Technology}
\title{The adjoint operator in the freealg package}
%\VignetteIndexEntry{adjoint}

%% for pretty printing and a nice hypersummary also set:
\Plainauthor{Robin K. S. Hankin}
\Plaintitle{The adjoint operator}
\Shorttitle{The adjoint operator}

%% an abstract and keywords
\Abstract{ In this very short document I discuss the adjoint operator
  \code{ad()} and illustrate some of its properties.
}

\Keywords{Adjoint operator, free algebra}
\Plainkeywords{Adjoint operator, free algebra}
  
%% publication information
%% NOTE: This needs to filled out ONLY IF THE PAPER WAS ACCEPTED.
%% If it was not (yet) accepted, leave them commented.
%% \Volume{13}
%% \Issue{9}
%% \Month{September}
%% \Year{2004}
%% \Submitdate{2004-09-29}
%% \Acceptdate{2004-09-29}
%% \Repository{https://github.com/RobinHankin/freegroup} %% this line for Tragula

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%% in the following format:
\Address{
  Robin K. S. Hankin\\%\orcid{https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5982-0415}\\
  Auckland University of Technology\\
  E-mail: \email{hankin.robin@gmail.com}\hfill\includegraphics[width=1in]{\Sexpr{system.file("help/figures/freealg.png",package="freealg")}}
}
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\begin{document}


<<echo=FALSE,print=FALSE>>=
library("freealg")
@ 


\hfill\includegraphics[width=1in]{\Sexpr{system.file("help/figures/freealg.png",package="freealg")}}

<<>>=
ad
@ 
  

\subsection*{The adjoint operator: definition}

Given an associative algebra ${\mathcal A}$ and $X,Y\in{\mathcal A}$,
we define the \emph{Lie Bracket} $[X,Y]$ as $XY-YX$.  In the {\tt
freealg} package this is implemented with the{\tt .[]} construction:

<<>>=
X <- as.freealg("X")
Y <- as.freealg("Y")
.[X,Y]
@

\subsection*{The Jacobi identity}

The Lie bracket is bilinear and satisfies the Jacobi condition:

<<>>=
X <- rfalg(3)
Y <- rfalg(3)
Z <- rfalg(3)
X # Y and Z are similar objects
.[X,Y] # quite complicated
.[X,.[Y,Z]] + .[Y,.[Z,X]] + .[Z,.[X,Y]]  # Zero by Jacobi
@ 


\subsection*{The adjoint map: definition}
Now we define the adjoint as follows.  Given a Lie algebra
$\mathfrak{g}$, and $X\in{\mathcal A}$, we define a linear map
$\mathrm{ad}_X\colon\mathfrak{g}\longrightarrow\mathfrak{g}$ with

\[
\mathrm{ad}_X(Y)=\left[X,Y\right]
\]

In the {\tt freealg} package, this is implemented using the {\tt ad()} function:

<<>>=
ad(X)
@ 

See how function {\tt ad()} returns a {\em function}.  We can play with this:

<<>>=
f <- ad(X)
f(Y)
f(Y) == X*Y-Y*X
@ 


The first thing to note is that $\mathrm{ad}_X$ is NOT a Lie
homomorphism, for any particular (non-constant) value of $X$.  If
$\phi$ is a Lie homomorphism then $\phi([x,y]) =
\left[\phi(x),\phi(y)\right]$.  There is no reason to expect the
adjoint to be a Lie homomorphism, but it does not hurt to check:
    
<<>>=
phi <- ad(Z)
phi(.[X,Y]) == .[phi(X),phi(Y)]
@     

With this definition, it is easy to calculate, say,
$[Z,[Z,[Z,[Z,[Z,X]]]]]$:

<<label=repeatedad>>=
f <- ad("x")
f(f(f(f(f("y")))))
@ 

Above, we see that \code{ad()} coerces its argument to a
\code{freealg} object.

\subsection*{The adjoint operator is a derivation}

A {\em derivation} of a Lie bracket is a function
$\phi\colon\mathfrak{g}\longrightarrow\mathfrak{g}$ that satisfies

\[
\phi([Y,Z]) = [\phi(Y),Z] + [Y,\phi(Z)].
\]

We will verify that $\mathrm{ad}_X$ is indeed a derivation:

<<label=verifyderivation>>=
phi <- ad(X)
phi(.[Y,Z]) == .[phi(Y),Z] + .[Y,phi(Z)]
@ 
 

\subsection*{The adjoint operator
    $\mathrm{ad}\colon\mathfrak{g}\longrightarrow\mathrm{
        End}(\mathfrak{g})$ is a Lie homomorphism}


Even though $\mathrm{ad}_X$ is not a Lie homomorphism, we can view the
adjoint operator as a map from a Lie algebra to its endomorphism
group, and this {\em is} a Lie homomorphism.  We are asserting that

\[
\mathrm{ad}_{\left[X,Y\right]} =\left[\mathrm{ad}_X,\mathrm{ad}_Y\right]
\]

In package idiom we would have:
                              
<<>>=
ad(.[X,Y])(Z) == .[ad(X),ad(Y)](Z)
@                               
                              
Observe that ``\code{.[ad(X),ad(Y)]}'' is a function:
                                                                                               
<<>>=
.[ad(X),ad(Y)]
@                                                 


which we evaluate (on the right hand side) at \code{Z}.


\section*{Adjoints in other contexts}

Function \code{ad()} works in a more general context than the free
algebra.  For example, we might use it for matrices:

<<>>=
f <- ad(matrix(c(4,6,2,3),2,2))
M <- matrix(1:4,2,2)
f(M)
@ 

\section*{Note on the definition of \code{ad()}}

It would seem that one could define \code{ad()} as follows:

\begin{verbatim}
`ad` <- function(x){
    function(y){
        .[as.freealg(x),as.freealg(y)]
    }
}
\end{verbatim}

which would be a lot clearer.  However, ``\code{.}'' is an object,
loaded via the \code{lazydata} system.  {\em Writing R extensions}
says, in a footnote:

Note that lazy-loaded datasets are {\em not} in the package's
namespace so need to be accessed via \code{::},
e.g. \code{survival::survexp.us}.

This would make it ``\code{freelg::.[x,y]}'', which is not really any
better IMO.

\end{document}
 
